Key Related Policy Changes
- 1971: Army regulations permitted women to remain on active duty if pregnant (April 9, 1971)
- 1972: Women entered Army ROTC (September 1972)
- 1972: First women attended Drill Sergeant Courses (February 1972)
- 1972: August 1972 – All military occupational specialties opened to women except combat roles
In 1972, the U.S. military lifted its ban on women commanding units that included men. This policy change occurred alongside Secretary of the Army Robert F. Froehlke’s approval in August 1972 to open all military occupational specialties to women (except those requiring combat training or duty). This expansion came as the Army transitioned to an all-volunteer force and reflected a broader recognition that women could serve in far greater capacity than previously allowed.
References
Primary Legal Documents
Women’s Armed Services Integration Act, Pub. L. No. 80-625, 62 Stat. 356 (1948). Established the legal framework for permanent female military service, though with restrictions including the prohibition on women commanding men (lifted in 1972).
Public Law 90-130, 81 Stat. 374 (1967). Removed caps on female officer promotions and opened general/flag officer ranks to women, paving the way for expanded command opportunities.
Military Documentation
Army Heritage Center Foundation. (2020, September 11). Great strides forward: Women in the Army, 1966-present. https://www.armyheritage.org/soldier-stories-information/great-strides-forward-women-in-the-army-1966-present/
Academic and Scholarly Sources
Books
Devilbiss, M. C. (1990). Women and military service: A history, analysis, and overview of key issues. Air University Press.
Holm, J. M. (1982). Women in the military: An unfinished revolution. Presidio Press.
Holm, J. M. (1992). Women in the military: An unfinished revolution (Rev. ed.). Presidio Press.
Internet Archive Access: https://archive.org/details/womeninmilitary00jean
Roth, T. L. (2017). Her Cold War: Women in the U.S. military, 1945-1980. University of North Carolina Press.
Scholarly Articles
Baldwin, J. N. (1996). Female promotions in male-dominated organizations: The case of the United States military. The Journal of Politics, 58(4), 1184-1197. https://doi.org/10.2307/2960157
Miller, L. L. (1997). Not just weapons of the weak: Gender harassment as a form of protest for Army men. Social Psychology Quarterly, 60(1), 32-51. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787009
Segal, M. W. (1978). Women in the military: Research and policy issues. Youth and Society, 10(2), 101-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X7801000201
Segal, M. W., & Hansen, A. F. (1992). Value rationales in policy debates on women in the military: A content analysis of Congressional testimony, 1941–1985. Social Science Quarterly, 73(2), 296–309.
Zeigler, S. L., & Gunderson, G. G. (2019). Historical policies affecting women’s military and family roles. Armed Forces & Society, 46(2), 243-265.
Journalistic and News Sources
American Civil Liberties Union. (2024, October 17). Combat exclusion policy for women. https://www.aclu.org/issues/womens-rights/womens-rights-workplace/combat-exclusion-policy-women
Defense Visual Information Distribution Service. (n.d.). An observance for Women’s History in the military. https://www.dvidshub.net/news/442006/observance-womens-history-military
History of women in the military. (n.d.). Garmont Tactical. https://garmonttactical.com/post/women-in-the-military.html
Navy will send women to sea, opening way to combat service. (1972, August 9). The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
Government Archives and Digital Collections
Binker, M., Veterans History Project, Library of Congress, & Holm, J. M. (1942-2003). Jeanne M. Holm collection [Collection]. Library of Congress, Veterans History Project. https://www.loc.gov/item/afc2001001.04293/
Burrelli, D. F. (2012, April 5). Women in combat: Issues for Congress (Report No. R42075). Congressional Research Service. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/natsec/R42075.pdf
Karnack, K. N. (2015). Women in combat: Issues for Congress (Report No. R42075). Congressional Research Service.U.S. Congress, Joint Economic Committee, Subcommittee on Priorities and Economy in Government. (1978). The role of women in the military: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Priorities and Economy in Government of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session, July 22 and September 1, 1977. U.S. Government Printing Office. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/role-women-military-6091/fulltext